ASS Advances in Social Sciences 2169-2556 Scientific Research Publishing 10.12677/ASS.2022.116321 ASS-52832 ASS20220600000_27235852.pdf 人文社科 提取练习对错误记忆影响的研究综述 A Review of the Retrieval Practice Effect on False Memory 浩钰 1 * 福建师范大学心理学院,福建 福州 06 06 2022 11 06 2339 2343 © Copyright 2014 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. 2014 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

当接触到具有误导倾向的信息时,人们的记忆有可能产生扭曲甚至发生错误产生错误记忆。许多研究者致力于寻找提高记忆准确性或降低其暗示性的方法。测试或提取练习可能是一种可行的方法。测试效应指的是,在同等的时间内多次重复测试或提取练习比多次重复学习更能促进记忆的长期保持。已有研究表明测试效应在教学实践和学生学习中的有效性。本文总结了关于提取练习对错误记忆影响的研究。主要关注RES效应的产生与其理论机制,总结和分析了错误记忆产生的可能原因与解释,最后概述了进一步的研究方向。 When exposed to information that has a tendency to mislead, people’s memories may become distorted or even erroneous producing false memories. Many researchers have worked to find ways to improve the accuracy of memory or reduce its suggestibility. Testing or retrieval may be one possible method. Testing effect refers to the fact that multiple repetitions of a test or retrieval practice over the same amount of time promote better long-term retention of memory than multiple repetitions of learning. Studies have been conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness of the testing effect in teaching practice and student learning. This paper summarizes the research on the effects of extraction practice on false memory. It focuses on the generation of the RES effect and its theoretical mechanisms, summarizes and analyzes the possible causes and explanations for false memory generation, and concludes by outlining further research directions.

提取练习,错误记忆,RES效应, Retrieval Practice False Memory RES Effect
摘要

当接触到具有误导倾向的信息时,人们的记忆有可能产生扭曲甚至发生错误产生错误记忆。许多研究者致力于寻找提高记忆准确性或降低其暗示性的方法。测试或提取练习可能是一种可行的方法。测试效应指的是,在同等的时间内多次重复测试或提取练习比多次重复学习更能促进记忆的长期保持。已有研究表明测试效应在教学实践和学生学习中的有效性。本文总结了关于提取练习对错误记忆影响的研究。主要关注RES效应的产生与其理论机制,总结和分析了错误记忆产生的可能原因与解释,最后概述了进一步的研究方向。

关键词

提取练习,错误记忆,RES效应

A Review of the Retrieval Practice Effect on False Memory<sup> </sup>

Haoyu Wang

School of Psychology Academy, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou Fujian

Received: May 20th, 2022; accepted: Jun. 17th, 2022; published: Jun. 24th, 2022

ABSTRACT

When exposed to information that has a tendency to mislead, people’s memories may become distorted or even erroneous producing false memories. Many researchers have worked to find ways to improve the accuracy of memory or reduce its suggestibility. Testing or retrieval may be one possible method. Testing effect refers to the fact that multiple repetitions of a test or retrieval practice over the same amount of time promote better long-term retention of memory than multiple repetitions of learning. Studies have been conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness of the testing effect in teaching practice and student learning. This paper summarizes the research on the effects of extraction practice on false memory. It focuses on the generation of the RES effect and its theoretical mechanisms, summarizes and analyzes the possible causes and explanations for false memory generation, and concludes by outlining further research directions.

Keywords:Retrieval Practice, False Memory, RES Effect

Copyright © 2022 by author(s) and beplay安卓登录

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0).

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

1. 引言

人们的记忆并不像我们所认为的那样牢固,可能受到外界的影响而产生不正确的记忆。在法庭中,当目击者接受采访或在法庭上证明他们的记忆时,暴露于错误信息可能会产生严重后果。由于目击者记忆的重要性及其误导特征,许多研究者致力于寻找提高目击者记忆准确性或降低其暗示性的方法。测试或提取练习可能是一种可行的方法。提取练习被认为是一种有效促进记忆编码的方式 [ 1 ]。进行提取练习时对记忆详细的描述,相比于重新学习,测试产生了更强的记忆痕迹。相比于重新学习,重复测试更能够提高记忆的长期保持 [ 2 ]。本文回顾了提取练习与误导信息产生错误记忆之间的关系,可能的理论解释,并且概述了进一步研究方向。

2. 什么是提取练习

过去人们(包括学生和教师)往往认为测验或测试只是衡量学习效果的一种方式,只有通过对学习内容的编码才算是真正地学习,而近年来大量的研究证明重复测试对于学习而言是更加有益的。提取练习效应(Retrieval Practice Effect, RET)指的是在同等的时间内多次重复测试或提取练习比多次重复学习更能促进记忆的长期保持,也称为测试效应(Testing Effect) [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]。通过测试来提高记忆保持水平并不是一个新发现。James (1890)在他的《心理学原理》一书中讨论了测试的作用,James认为当我们几乎学会某一内容时,与其消极的重复(再看一遍),不如积极的重复(试着回忆出一些内容)有利于记忆 [ 3 ]。到目前为止,国外已有许多关于RET的研究成果,但在教育实践中,RET并没有被广泛认识和广泛恰当地应用。

3. 误导信息效应

误导信息效应(Misinformation Effect)是指当个体对目击事件的回忆受到事后信息的干扰时,记忆的准确性降低或产生错误记忆 [ 6 ]。让人们接触到误导性的事件信息也可能导致他们非常自信地“记住”明显虚假的事件,从童年的性虐待到遭受外星人绑架 [ 7 ]。研究错误记忆具有重要的实际意义,在评价犯罪被害人或证人的目击证词时,人们通常认为记忆是对过去事件的简单记录,可以随意回放。这个假设已经被证明是错误的。研究人员分析了基于DNA证据,发现不准确的记忆和错误的证人身份识别是美国最常见的错误定罪原因 [ 8 ]。

4. 提取与错误记忆 4.1. 测试的保护效应

提取练习在错误记忆研究中展示出积极的效果,Loftus [ 9 ] 向被试展示了一张描绘一辆绿色汽车所发生交通事故的幻灯片。被试被要求指出汽车的颜色(在接触误导信息之前),然后误导信息显示的是汽车是蓝色。这样的操作减少了最终测验的误导信息效应 [ 9 ]。同样,Memon和Kidd [ 10 ] 发现,与接触后相比,接触误导性信息前完成认知调查也减少了错误记忆 [ 11 ]。研究者还发现,与被试回忆概括化的信息相比,目击犯罪的高度具体的逐字细节的初步测试减少了误导信息效应 [ 12 ]。

新近的研究发现初步测试对通过提示回忆问题引入的错误信息减少了误导信息效应。Pereverseff等人 [ 13 ] 研究了错误信息呈现方式(叙述性与提示性回忆问题)是否一直产生测试保护效应(Protective Effect of Testing, PET)的范式中产生类似的分离。在学习了家庭场景(例如:厨房)的照片后,一些被试进行了初步的回忆测试。经过48小时的延迟,场景中未呈现的物品(例如,刀/盘子)通过叙述或问题提出。无论错误信息呈现方式如何,研究者在初始测试条件化自由回忆和来源监控测试中都发现了PET效应。然而,初始测试也产生了内存成本,因此在初始测试中报告的建议项目可能会在最终的回忆测试中持续存在。因此,初始测试可以防止提示性,但当初始测试中出现无关信息入侵时,也会引发记忆错误。

4.2. 提取增加暗示性

人们后来对某一事件的记忆可能会因为接触到关于该事件的错误信息而改变。然而,错误信息的典型例子不包括引入错误信息之前的回忆测试,这与现实生活中的目击者向911接线员或犯罪现场官员报告时遇到的情况相反。因为提取是一种强大的记忆增强剂(测试效应),最初的测试有望避免记忆随时间下降,并保持更长时间,因此被试更容易抵抗误导信息的干扰,在随后的测试中报告的原始记忆比误导答案更多。在收到关于事件的错误信息之前回忆目击者事件,应该会减少目击者的暗示。然而,Chan等人 [ 14 ] 发现,即时线索回忆实际上对年轻人和老年人来说都加剧了后来的错误信息效应。研究者观察到的反向测试效应基于两种机制:第一,即时线索回忆增强了对错误信息的学习;第二,最初回忆的细节变得特别容易受到后来错误信息的干扰,这一发现表明,即使是人类的情节记忆也可能经历一个重新巩固的过程。这些结果表明,现实生活中的目击者记忆可能比目前想象的更容易受到错误信息的影响 [ 14 ]。这个与直觉相反的现象被Chan等人命名为提取增加暗示性(Retrieval-Enhanced Suggestibility),即RES效应,该效应也在许多实验中被重复验证 [ 15 ] [ 16 ]。

5. RES的理论机制

测试强化学习(Testing Enhance Learning, TEL)。该理论认为最初的测试会增强对后来出现信息的学习(包括误导信息) [ 17 ],从而增加了以后再被提取的可能性(Zaragoza & Mitchell, 1996)。就如Tulving和Watkins [ 18 ] 的研究表明,在学习新单词对A-C之前测试已学习的单词对A-B将增加新单词对的学习。同样,在RES效应的研究中,当被试观看抢劫银行的视频后,他们被问及劫匪给了警察多少时间准备赎金。当被试判断自己没有记住这一细节时,他们会在接下来的误导性叙述中更认真地学习,优先对没有记住的内容进行编码,因此记住了更多的误导信息,产生了更多的错误记忆。

注意分配假说。Chan和Thomas认为对出现在初始测试之后的误导信息的优先编码可能是RES效应产生的一个原因 [ 14 ] [ 16 ]。他们为了更好的解释其原因,提出了一个注意分配假说(Attention allocation hypothesis) [ 16 ] [ 19 ]。注意分配假说认为,最初测试中的问题已经成为随后出现的误导信息的一个线索。例如,如果在初步测试中问被试“嫌疑人使用的是什么样的车辆?”那么这个问题很可能会引起被试的注意,使被试在随后的叙述中优先考虑与车辆有关的误导性细节进行编码。本质上而言,这类似于教育研究领域的前置效应。例如,在学生阅读文章之前,为他们准备了一系列相关的问题,这可以促进他们对文章的学习。这些问题提高了与问题相关联的记忆,而降低了之前问题没有出现的内容的记忆 [ 20 ]。这种效应是由于对与问题有关的材料的关注度增加,而对与问题无关的材料的忽视造成的 [ 21 ]。同样,RES效应可以解释为,初步测试问题增加了被试对与线索问题相关的误导信息的注意。总之,注意分布假说认为,RES效应是由目击者在初始测试中提出的具体问题引起的。

重新巩固理论(Theories of Reconsolidation)认为记忆提取后会重新巩固原有的记忆,而重新巩固的过程中,原有的记忆可能会被误导信息所干扰而更新,导致以后提取原有的记忆更加困难。大量的研究表明,记忆痕迹在提取时会变得不稳定,必须重新巩固下来,而重新巩固的过程特别容易受到后来信息的影响 [ 22 ]。此外,记忆的重新巩固或原有记忆的更新也被认为是错误记忆形成的一个重要原因 [ 23 ]。换句话说,对于记忆的提取刺激了目击者的记忆,使其处于不稳定的一个状态,在这种状态下被试接收了误导信息,增加对误导信息的编码,从而产生RES效应 [ 24 ] [ 25 ]。

6. 研究展望

目前,提取练习效应理论在学习领域已经取得了丰富的成果,关于提取在误导信息效应的研究也越来越多。随着RES效应的发现,它成为另一个研究热点,但相关研究仍然有限,理论机制研究也不成熟。在目击者记忆中,有许多关于提取的研究,尤其是在Chan等人发现了提取增加暗示性效应之后。虽然近年来国外对RES效应的研究已经成为热点,但国内对其的研究还很有限,未来的研究可以从多个角度进一步探索。首先,在国内环境下,可以扩大研究群体,从大学生样本扩大到儿童、成人、老人等;其次,关于提取练习和误导信息对证人原始记忆的影响,可以从多种测试方法入手,如线索回忆、自由回忆等,并比较不同时间长度的实验设计之间的差异;最后,可以参考提取诱发遗忘的研究范式,对提取练习对目击者记忆中未提取部分的影响进行更加深入、更加全面的研究。

文章引用

王浩钰. 提取练习对错误记忆影响的研究综述A Review of the Retrieval Practice Effect on False Memory[J]. 社会科学前沿, 2022, 11(06): 2339-2343. https://doi.org/10.12677/ASS.2022.116321

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