催产素(oxytocin)是人体的内生激素,对动物和人类的社会行为有重要影响。催产素一度被认为是能够促进人类亲社会行为的激素,但近年来的研究发现其也有消极的作用。社会显著性假设对此提出了一个整合性的解释,认为催产素的能增加情境线索的显著性进而影响个体的行为,其作用会受到个人差异和情境线索的影响。但是,当情境线索有多条或者情境线索是模糊的时候,即弱情境,催产素会使个体感知到哪种线索尚未有探讨。本文在综述前人研究的基础上引入了人格心理学领域描述人格和情境交互作用的强情境假设,探讨了在弱情境下催产素的可能的作用,为后续研究提供了一定启示。 Oxytocin is a kind of endogenous hormone which influences humans’ social behavior. Although previous studies considered oxytocin as a prosocial hormone, some researchers discovered that it may also induce negative behavior. To solve this contradiction, the social salience hypothesis was proposed, which argued that oxytocin may increase sensitivity to social cues depending on contextual variables and interindividual factors. However, when social cues are various or ambiguous, what kind of cues people are prone to perceive are not clear. The present review concluded previous studies related to the oxytocin within the framework of the social salience hypothesis, and further introduced the situation strength hypothesis as a compensating explanation regarding to the effect of oxytocin on social behavior.
催产素,社会行为,社会显著性假设,强情境假设, Oxytocin
Social Behaviour
Social Salience
Situation Strength
催产素与社会行为
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http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
1. 引言
催产素是一种九肽,合成于下丘脑室旁核和视上核,由脑垂体后叶释放进入血液循环。进入中枢神经系统后,其作为神经递质存在于边缘系统和脑干,广泛影响大脑活动。在过去的几十年中催产素成为研究者的关注热点,针对动物和人都得到了不少研究结果。早期基于动物的研究发现,中枢系统中的催产素对动物的亲社会行为有重要作用(Donaldson & Young, 2008)。在动物研究上得到的结果使得近年来的研究兴趣逐渐转移到催产素对人类社会行为的影响上,并得到了大量相似的结果(Bartz & Taylor, 2010; Heinrichs, von Dawans, & Domes, 2009; Crockford et al., 2014),认为催产素具有亲社会作用,甚至将其称为“爱的荷尔蒙”。
虽然大量的研究显示催产素能促进个体对积极的社会线索的反应(Domes et al., 2013; Kemp & Guastella, 2010),但是后续的研究发现,催产素的作用并非都是积极的。在早期探讨催产素的非亲社会功能的研究中,Shamay-Tsoory等人(2009)发现在竞争任务中,当看到其他被试获得更多的奖金时,相较于控制组,经过鼻喷催产素处理的被试的嫉妒情绪显著增加;而当自己获得更多奖金时,他们的幸灾乐祸情绪更强。进一步的研究发现,催产素能引起很多的反社会行为(如攻击)、高水平的鼻喷催产素和关系痛苦(relational distress)和人际困难有关(interpersonal difficulties) (De Wall, Gillath, Pressman, Black, Bartz, & Moskovitz et al., 2014; Tabak, McCullough, Szeto, Mendez, & McCabe, 2011)。
对于催产素的作用,前人提出了三种可能的解释:第一,亲社会假说,认为催产素加强了亲社会行为(Kosfeld et al., 2005; Zak et al., 2007; Bartz, Zaki, Bolger, Hollander, Ludwig, Kolevzon, & Ochsner, 2010);第二,恐惧/压力假说,认为催产素通过减少压力影响社会行为(McCarthy et al., 1996);第三,内群体/外群体假说,认为催产素调节了同一环境中的团体之间的合作与冲突(Dreu et al. 2010; Declerck et al., 2010)。但以上假设并不能解释在催产素对同一变量的矛盾的影响。为了解决这种不一致Shamay-Tsoory (2010)提出了社会显著性假设(the Social Salience Hypothesis)以解释这种不一致。该假设认为催产素能增加社会线索的显著性从而影响个体的行为。在上述Shamay-Tsoory等人的研究中,由于实验组的竞争线索在催产素的作用下变得更加显著,因此实验组个体的竞争相关的情绪反应更加强烈。后来,Bartz等人和Olff等人对社会显著性假设进行了补充,提出催产素对社会线索的显著性的影响受情境特点和/或个体差异的交互作用的制约(Bartz et al., 2011; Olff et al., 2013),不同的情境特点以及个体对情境特点的不同解释都会影响催产素的作用。
亲社会假说认为催产素加强了亲社会行为。亲社会行为是指对社会群体有益的行为,如同情和合作(Penner, Dovidio, Piliavin, & Schroeder, 2005; Domes et al., 2007)。催产素被发现和很多亲社会行为有关。比如,接受了鼻喷催产素的个体在合作中的信任水平更高(Kosfeld et al., 2005)、更大方(Zak et al., 2007)、更容易将他人知觉为亲社会的(Declerck et al., 2010),就算在受到背叛过后也会继续信任对方(Baumgartner et al., 2008)。
但是,也有研究发现催产素的作用并不总是积极的。如催产素会增加不信任(Bartz et al., 2011)。这些相互冲突的结果可能是由不同的实验情境带来的。因此,社会显著性假设提出催产素的作用依赖于社会线索和个人因素。有研究也支持这种观点。在最初的针对催产素的非亲社会作用的研究中,被试被要求与对手进行游戏,游戏收益由局游戏表现决定。结果显示,鼻喷催产素组的被试在对手获得更多钱时产生的嫉妒情绪增加,在自己获得更多钱时产生的幸灾乐祸情绪增加(Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009)。该研究提示,催产素的积极作用可能仅仅在积极情境中出现,而在竞争情境中时反而会增加竞争反应。
4. 社会显著性与恐惧/压力假说
恐惧/压力假说认为催产素通过减少压力影响社会行为。一些研究显示催产素能通过减小压力来增加亲社会行为(Taylor et al., 2006; Kumsta & Heinrichs, 2013; Frijling et al., 2015)。因为在面临威胁刺激的时候个体通过释放催产素来减少焦虑。而焦虑与压力的减少会使得亲社会行为增加。但是,有点研究发现在某些情境下催产素会无视压力的减小而提高压力进而增加保护性行为,如攻击(Striepens et al., 2012; Eckstein et al., 2014)。此外,催产素能增加面对不可预测威胁时的焦虑和面对威胁时的杏仁核反应(Grillon et al., 2013; Lischke et al., 2012; Kirsch et al., 2006)、血浆催产素浓度与广泛社会焦虑障碍者的高社会焦虑症状相关(Hoge et al., 2008)。以上研究显示,在积极、安全的情境中催产素可能增加了积极社会线索,因此减小了压力;相反的,在不可预测的威胁情境中,催产素使得个体更能注意到消极线索,从而增加压力。
5. 社会显著性与内群体
内群体/外群体假说认为催产素调节了同一环境中的团体之间的合作与冲突。而社会显著性假设认为催产素能提高内群体线索的显著性,从而增加亲社会行为。如研究发现催产素能提高个体的狭隘利他主义和民族优越感、增加内群体偏好和内群体认同(Stallen et al., 2012),增加了内群体之间的爱而非外群体之间的敌对。
目前,催产素对社会行为的影响备受关注,已有的研究也获得了不少可喜的进展,研究方法也从早期的行为实验转移到了眼动、脑成像技术等。把握催产素作用的规律有助于理解人类社会行为模式,为进一步的干预提供基础。但对于催产素的作用的原因尚处于理论探讨阶段。本文综述了前人对催产素作用的解释,引入强情境理论加以探讨,为后续的研究提供了一定的启示。今后的研究可以从以下方面入手:首先,催产素对注意偏向的影响以及人格因素在其中的作用可以作为一个主题。催产素能作用于注意加工的早期阶段,并且影响注意偏好,这种偏好的改变是否受到人格的调节,可以通过实验验证。其次,催产素的社会显著性假设只是一个假设,因此需要更多的直接或间接证据。可以通过注意定向和分配范式直接检验催产素在增加社会显著性中的作用。此外,前人的研究发现催产素的作用在男性和女性之间可能存在差别(Domes et al., 2010; Tollenaar, Chatzimanoli, Nj, & Putman, 2013),因此未来也可以在探讨是否弱情景中的催产素的作用存在性别差异。
文章引用
曹 燊. 催产素与社会行为——社会显著性与强情境假设Oxytocin and Social Behavior—Based on Social Salience and Situation Strength[J]. 心理学进展, 2019, 09(01): 98-103. https://doi.org/10.12677/AP.2019.91013
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